Loan stratum

loans

Words that look like cognates across the family but are shared or parallel borrowings — from Arabic (religion, law, learning), Persian (everyday, literary), or Russian (modern/technical, mostly in Kazakh). Included to demonstrate the distinction between inherited Turkic cognates and shared loans.

kitab"book (Arabic)"

Shared Arabic loan across nearly the whole family; Turkish devoices to kitap when word-final.

qalam"pen (Arabic)"

saat"hour, watch (Arabic)"

dushman"enemy (Persian)"

bag-cha"garden (Persian)"

From Persian bagh + Turkic diminutive -ča: a HYBRID formation, not a pure loan.

maktab"school (Arabic)"

poyiz"train (Russian)"

Russian loan, prominent in Kazakh (poyiz/poezd); Turkish uses tren from French instead.

mashina"machine, car (Russian/French)"